Articles by Members of the Young Ottoman Scholars Society

By Yusuf Zeki Kemal
From: İstanbul
Attending: İstanbul University, but soon to be attending İstanbul Technical University
Age: 20 years old

I went to visit the Yıldız Palace this past week with my mum, and even though my mind was intermittently wishing throughout my visit that my father was here with us, I still strove to savour every moment as I sallied forth through the gates of the 19^th century palace, where Sultan Abdülhamit resided at one point during our glorious Ottoman past. 

As I moved through each pavilion and each room, I began to notice an eerie feeling creeping up my spine… a sense of loss from the past, not due to any unknown ancestral connection between me and the deposed Sultan, but due to the unmistakable, encompassing sentiment induced by a dazingly familiar atmosphere that I felt enveloped my very essence as I continued my enraptured stroll, characterized by my roving and fascinated gaze, throughout the pavilions. 

I was incredulous at how within the humble confines of these historical walls resided an endless panoply of artwork, furniture, decorative elements, medals, and various other objects that more often than not, bore an eerily undeniable and eye-catchingly salient resemblance to whatever narrations and recounts I heard from my paternal family about what conditions they lived in during the course of the 20^th Century; a poignant reminder of what my father and his maternal family had lost since they left İstanbul and Tiranë and moved to Alexandria and Cairo. 

In heart-wrenching disbelief,  I was cordially stunned at how such a rivetingly splendacious, palatially sumptuous and timeless mesmerising place like this could be open to the public. My eyes were on the artworks, vases and invaluable collections throughout exhibitions, but my heart and soul were in bona-fide and boundless disbelief at how somebody’s home could a century later be so unscrupulously dishonoured and nigh on desecrated in such a way.. 

Even I felt a pang of qualm creeping up my spine, telling me I am not supposed to be there, considering that I am not a descendent of Abdülhamit, or even mildly related to him. 

Anyhow… 

Let’s explore the fateful History of the glamourous Yıldız Palace Complex..

Early Years

Perched atop a hill towering over the glistening waters of the Bosphorus, the area of the palace complex was originally made of natural woodlands and used for hunting by sultans since the early sixteenth century. During the reign of Sultan Abdülaziz (r. 1861-1876), new pavilions and summer palaces such as Malta Kiosk, Çadır Kiosk and Çit Pavilion were built by the architects of the Balyan family.

The Yıldız Palace is a masterfully designed and exquisitely coalesced amalgamation of structures, each of which an astonishing feat of architecture in and of itself, with the humble origins of the premier of these structures dating back to 1798 when the first Pavilion in the area was built by Sultan Selim III., for his Valide, Mihrişah Sultan. Though, at mid-century, the Pavilion structures, except the fountain, were demolished. 

Hamidiye Period

In the late 19th century, due to a formidable sense of angst of a prospective seaside attack on the palace courtesy of its location the shore of the Bosporus strait, Sultan Abdülhamid II left Dolmabahçe Palace and expanded the Yıldız Palace inasmuch as ordering the renowned Italian architect Raimondo D’Aronco to build new buildings to the palace complex, which from 1876 to 1909 became the fourth seat of Ottoman government after the Eski Saray (Old Palace) in Edirne, the Topkapı Palace and Dolmabahçe Palaces in Istanbul. 

During this period, the property became a large complex situated in 500.000 square-meters worth of area comprising several governmental, residential, industrial and cultural buildings including numerous pavilions, kiosks, theater, museum, library, repair shops and carpenter’s shop, imperial porcelain factory and military barracks. During this period, the palace complex housed more than 12,000 people including workers in the factories and workshops, according to some accounts. 

In later use, after the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, the palace began to be used as a luxury casino before being converted into a guest house for visiting heads of state and royalty.

Layout of the Palace Grounds:

The palace complex, which is surrounded by walls, consists of three main courtyards: The first courtyard, which functioned as the administrative center, contains official apartments and service buildings, including Armory, Set Pavilion, Yaveran Chambers, Çit Pavilion, Carpenter’s Workshop, Office of the Sultan’s Aides-de-Camp, Pharmacy and Library. 

The second courtyard, which was the center of private life of Sultan and his family, includes the Hasbahçe (Privy garden), Small Mabeyn Kiosk, Harem Buildings, Cihannuma Kiosk, Island Kiosk and the Theater. 

The third area covers the outer gardens, which are home to the Chalet Kiosk, the Malta Kiosk, the Çadır Kiosk, the Greenhouse and the Yıldız Tile Factory.The Palace Gardens area is connected to the Çıragan Palace on the seashore with a bridge. 

The Palace complex subsumes myriads of grandiose, timeless structures and pavilions, so we’ll only cover two of the more prominent ones here: The veridically named Great Mabeyn Pavilion (Büyük Mabeyn Köşkü) and the imposing Şale Kiosk. 

Great Mabeyn Pavilion

Commissioned by Sultan Abdulaziz in 1866 and built by the architect Sarkis Balyan, the two-storey building has an eclectic style at the exterior and is one of the principal buildings of the palace complex.

The inner part, on the other hand, is embellished with the Turkish and Islamic styledecorations. Having served as the administration headquarters of the state during the reign of Sultan Abdulhamid II, the kiosk was used for important receptions during the late Ottoman and early Republican periods.

Büyük Mabeyn Köşkü was one of the main residences of Sultan Abdülhamid II at Yıldız Palace, alongside the Şale Köşkü. Sultan Abdülhamid II hosted foreign visitors at this building, including Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria and his wife Princess Stéphanie of Belgium in 1884, as well as Kaiser Wilhelm II of the German Empire in 1889. Büyük Mabeyn Köşkü is no longer open to the public and is no longer a museum. 

Since 2015, The Great Mabeyn Pavilion is being used by the President of Turkey during his visits to Istanbul, along with his offices at the Dolmabahçe Palace and the Vahdettin Pavilion.

Şale Kiosk

Consisting of three adjacent sections built at different times in a garden surrounded by high walls, the Şale Kiosk is indubitably one of the most significant buildings of 19th century Ottoman architecture. 

The kiosk had its first section constructed in 1880, with the additional building getting built by architect Sarkis Balyan in 1889, expanding the magnificent kiosk with additional rooms and halls.  

Constructed by the renowned Architect Raimondo D’Aranco in 1898, the third section is known as Ceremonial Kiosk. A subject of keen intrigue that I’m sure will raise lots of eyebrows of history aficionados, the last two sections were constructed for German Emperor Wilhelm II for his visits to İstanbul. It is known that ceremonies were performed at this hall during the reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II. Which might possibly at least partially explain why bar the dining hall reflecting the Ottoman taste, European style is dominant at the furnishing of the Kiosk.

So that’s Yıldız Palace, a timeless and ornate embodiment of Ottoman architecture, culture, design and progressive stylings, that stood the test of time and acts as an exalted and conspicuous testament to the unconquerable Ottoman spirit and its breath-taking grandeur. A structure complex, that is unmistakably Ottoman.

Written by Yusuf Kemal, at 20:46 on July 28, 2024.

References: https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6044/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yıldız_Palace

By Sultanzade Maximilian Ali Beyefendi
Attended: University of Exeter, BA Business & Economics
Age: 24 years old

I am so proud of my mother, Ayşe Osmanoğlu, for establishing this initiative for young people like me to share our passion and love for history, and I hope it is something that takes off and engages people who have a wide variety of interests. When she asked me to write the first article for the Young Ottoman Scholars Society, I naturally felt honoured, but also a little unsure of what specific topic to write about.

My mother then mentioned that July 27th was an extremely auspicious date in Ottoman history, and left me to investigate why that was. After some internet searching and a lot of reading I discovered why! On the anniversary of this hugely significant date in history, I really hope you enjoy reading this short article that poignantly starts right at the beginning…

Historical Context

The late 13th century was a time of great turmoil and upheaval in Anatolia.

The once-powerful Byzantine Empire was crumbling, providing fertile ground for ambitious leaders like Osman Gazi to carve out new states. Born in 1258, Osman Gazi was the leader of the Kayı tribe, a branch of the Oghuz Turks who had settled in northwestern Anatolia. His leadership marked the transition from a small tribal beylik to a burgeoning mighty empire.

Capture of Bapheum Castle on July 27 1299

On July 27, 1299, a date heralded by many historians as the beginning of the Ottoman Empire, the world witnessed a pivotal moment that would shape centuries of history. This date marks the first concerted attack made by Gazi Sultan Osman I, the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, on the Byzantine Empire. The battle focussed on capturing the Castle of Bapheum on the plains outside Nicomedia (present day Izmit) and is considered the first strategic assault that signalled the beginning of Ottoman dominance in the region.

Historical & Meteorological Evidence

Despite some ambiguity and debate among scholars about this precise date, research has provided compelling evidence to support the fact that this momentous battle did in fact take place on 27^th July in 1299. This is corroborated by both historic and meteorological evidence, although unfortunately no contemporary Ottoman accounts have survived if indeed they ever existed.

However, the account of Osman Gazi’s invasion into Nicomedia is well-documented in the works of Pachymeres, a contemporary Greek historian. Pachymeres, who lived from 1242 to 1310, was a notable Byzantine scholar and official, providing a credible and first-hand perspective on the events of that time. His chronicles have been carefully examined and verified, and describe the invasion with precise detail. 

According to Pachymeres, on July 27, 1299, Osman Gazi, leading a formidable force, launched a sudden attack on Bapheum Castle on the Nicomedia plains. His account, translated from Greek and Latin, states: 

“On the twenty-sev­enth day of the month of July around Bapheum (this place was the well-known Nicomedia), Othman, with his army full of many thousands in number, unex­pectedly appearing, and suddenly attacking ….. after the river Sangarius had left its bed for the third time, thereby destroying the protective moat around the castle, and leaving the garrison of Muzalo exposed to the assault.”

The Latin translator of Pachymeres’ chronicles, Fossinus, says:

“Othman increased in power when a very strong force of the fiercest warriors from Paphlagonia had been joined to his army, and, in a battle near Nicomedia, the me­tropolis of Bithynia, he subdued Muzalo the Roman leader who had attempted to re­sist, which [city] he, as lord of the field, then held as a city be­sieged. Pachymeres plainly reports that these things happened around Bapheum near Nicomedia on the twenty-seventh day of the month of July: from a series of things in the Synop­sis, we truly affirm in like manner that this was the year 1299 of the Christian Era.” 

The year 1299 is well-documented as having extreme weather conditions that contributed to the success of Osman Gazi’s campaign. The winter of 1299 was recorded as one of the harshest on record, with snow piling up above doors and paths having to be marked by stakes and poles. Rivers remained frozen with thick ice well into February, damaging planted fields and seeds. The summer saw great floods as a result of the severe weather conditions earlier that year, brought about by unprecedented heavy rains and melting snow, which caused the river in Bapheum to overflow multiple times. This natural disaster played a crucial role in the success of Osman Gazi’s attack, as it rendered the castle’s defensive structures ineffective. The moat filled with silt and sand making the castle vulnerable to attack, and enabling the Ottoman forces to cross it easily.

Establishment of The Ottoman State

Osman Gazi’s actions during this period went beyond military conquests and encroachment into Byzantine territory. According to Sir Edward Creasy in his History of the Ottoman Empire, it was at this time that he assumed the prerogatives of a ruler. He began to coin money bearing his image and ordered public prayers in his name, both acts symbolising sovereignty and independence. These acts were crucial in establishing the legitimacy and authority of his leadership, setting the foundation for the Ottoman state and symbolising the birth of a dynasty that would endure for over six centuries and which would leave an indelible mark on the world. 

Conclusion

As we commemorate the anniversary of this auspicious date today, I invite you to reflect on the remarkable journey of the Ottoman State from its humble beginnings to a formidable global power. Understanding the historical context and significance of Osman Gazi’s attack on Bapheum Castle on the plains of Nicomedia provides valuable insights into the early stages of the rise of the Ottoman Empire. This event, accurately dated to July 27, 1299, underscores the strategic and opportunistic nature of Sultan Osman I’s early military campaigns and highlights the vulnerabilities of the Byzantine Empire during this period.

As we continue to explore the rich history of the Ottoman Empire at The Young Ottoman Scholars Society, events like the attack on Bapheum Castle remind us of the intricate interplay between divine intervention, natural phenomenons, military strategy, and historical timing that shape the course of history. And reminds me of how incredibly proud I am of my illustrious ancestors…

References

Sir Edward Creasy, History of the Ottoman Empire

Herbert Adam Gibbons, The Foundation of the Ottoman Empire (1300-1403)

Georgius Pachymeres, Corpus Scrip torum His­toriae Byzantinae 

https://www.ministrymagazine.org/archive/1933/02/gibbons-july-27-1299-date-sustained

https://www.ministrymagazine.org/archive/1944/06/a-landmark-of-history

https://www.ministrymagazine.org/archive/1944/07/a-landmark-of-historyjuly-27-1299

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